Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) was a German philosopher whose work significantly shaped later developments in metaphysics, ethics, psychology, and aesthetics. His major work, The World as Will and Representation (1818; expanded 1844), presents a systematic account of reality divided into two aspects. The world as Representation consists of phenomena as they appear to human consciousness, structured by perception, cognition, and the forms of space, time, and causality. Beneath this lies the world as Will, a single, undirected, and universal force that manifests itself in all natural processes, including human striving and desire.
His philosophy was heavily influenced by Immanuel Kant’s distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal worlds, as well as by Eastern traditions, especially Buddhism and Hinduism, which similarly emphasise the illusory nature of individual existence and the importance of overcoming desire. Schopenhauer adopted Kant’s view that the phenomenal world is constructed by the mind, but diverged by claiming that the noumenal realm consists of a single unifying principle: the Will.
For Schopenhauer, human life is characterised by an endless cycle of wanting, temporary satisfaction, and renewed desire, making suffering an inherent feature of existence. Understanding the unity of the Will has ethical implications. Once one recognises that all beings are manifestations of the same underlying force, and that individual persons exist only at the level of Representation, this should alter one’s behaviour. Harming another person is essentially a form of self-injury: it is akin to a snake biting its own tail without realising it. Compassion therefore becomes the foundation of morality: concern for others arises from recognising that they are not external to us in any deep metaphysical sense, but are manifestations of the same Will.
Schopenhauer held that aesthetic experience, especially music, offers temporary relief from the demands of the Will. Although his work received limited early recognition, it later influenced Nietzsche, Wagner, Freud, Mann, and others, securing his position as a major figure in nineteenth-century philosophy.